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The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles Free Essays

string(75) " in nature fostering teamwork and seeking group consensus \(Lewis, 2001\)\." With globalisation and related intensification of trade and commerce effective leadership has become indispensable in the business world. Where traditionally the business leader took the role of commanding â€Å"the troops† towards effectiveness and efficiency this has changed dramatically over the last decades. The service industry rise, knowledge management trends, increased workforce diversity combined with international trading and global sourcing of talent, has considerably reshaped the role of the leader in the contemporary organisation. We will write a custom essay sample on The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles or any similar topic only for you Order Now Numerous firms are in global alliances depending upon flexibility/adaptability to local markets, requiring their managers to possess appropriate leadership styles to cope effectively with different value systems and cultures (Fahy, 2002; Coviello et al., 1998). Arguably, the flattening of hierarchical structures has also contributed to this reshaping process as traditional sources of authority, upon which leaders have built on for years, have been diminished. Combined with the rise of new trading powers such as the â€Å"Asian Dragon†, business leaders, especially in international MNEs do not only face domestic multiculturalism and diversity but are also increasingly expatriated. Consequently completely new cultural pitfalls and challenges are faced requiring understanding of cultural values as well as quick cultural adaptation to transfer domestic leadership abilities into foreign markets. Combined with steadily rising competitive pressures, the contemporary business leader in a role not easily filled. Despite leadership being a universal concept (Bass, 1990), with most literature anchored in the (individualistically oriented) US, it has been questioned to what extend western leadership styles are cross-culturally transferable (Dorfman, 2003). Resultantly, debate has sparked over how far leadership is culturally contingent, if universal leadership qualities and tactics exist and what the explanatory variables are (Scandura Dorfman, 2004). This assignment aims at contributing towards this debate by exploring leadership disparity and possible congruence between the UK and Japan using academic measurement of national culture; Hofstede’s framework respectively. The next section will give an overview over the concept of leadership followed by an in-depth cultural comparison and concluding section. The term leadership incorporates some elements of controversy over its meaning and practices. Different cultural gist or terminology or in cross-cultural contexts makes a universal definition difficult (Yukl, 2002). This seems unsurprising as the understandings and expectations of authority roles differ between cultures. Nevertheless, despite cultural differences the majority of leadership definitions reflect some basic elements these manly being â€Å"group†, â€Å"influence† and â€Å"goal† (Bryman, 1992). Keeping this in mind, leadership can be seen as the â€Å"process of influencing others towards achieving some kind of desired outcome.† (De Jong Den Hartog, 2007, p. 44) or bluntly spoken â€Å"leadership is the ability to get [people] to do what they don’t like to do and like it† (Truman in Sadler, 2003, p. 5). Whilst this is a very basic attempt of a definition it allows for easier application in a cross-cultural context and highlights an important point: In order to lead one needs followers (Drucker, 2007). It is here where the inseparable link to power emerges whereby the power of leaders is largely dependent upon the perception of others (Hollander Julian, 1969; Maurer Lord, 1991; Pfeffer, 1977) but nevertheless forms the basis of leadership authority. It appears that only effective use of this power, combined with â€Å"leading by example† (Pfeffer, 1981) will result in positive and proactive guidance fostering creativity, innovation, commitment and long term organisational development. However, this is questionable and it seems that far too often in academic literature the terms â€Å"manager† and â€Å"leader† are merged giving a blurred picture of what each role actually entails. Readers should be reminded that leaders, unlike managers, do not have to rely on forms of power to influence subordinates, often actually relinquishing formal authoritarian control. This is due to the idea that to lead is to have followers, and following is always a voluntary activity. Nevertheless, it can be argued that even leaders need some foundation of authority; may it only be their charisma (Weber, 1968). This has been manifested in the participative, charismatic or transformative styles of leadership (Den Hartog Koopman, 2001) as oppose to the transactional style more related to operational, task focused  managers. Especially in western economies with predominant service industries, innovation and knowledge management, the former have been the focal point in recent years as autocratic leadership styles do no longer seem sufficient to extract the full potential of an increasingly knowledgeable, highly skilled and demanding workforce. Such, arguably â€Å"softer† approaches fostering employee involvement and participation have nevertheless been proven to result in increased organisational performance (Bass, 1996; 1997; House Shamir, 1993) and are arguably more â€Å"ideal† forms of organisational leadership (Bass Avolio, 1989). This might be applicable to western societies yet a cross-cultural generalisation might be prejudiced and the influence of personal values and cultural influences upon leadership styles should not be ignored (Byrne Bradley, 2007). Rather, culture, an essential component of which is personal values (Kroeber, 1952; Kluckhohm, 1949), is to be seen at a centre stage when analysing leadership differences (George et al., 1998; Nakata Sivakumar, 1996; Steenkamp et al., 1999; Cadogan et al. 2001), as t is â€Å"the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another† (Hofstede, 1980, p. 260) and shape leadership preferences. Culture hereby should not be limited to national culture but has to be extended to incorporating organisational as well as political culture (Schein, 1985), the latter two arguably being extensively shaped by the former. Democratic or authoritarian political systems, national values regarding sex differences and ethical behaviour as well as organisational attitudes towards factors such as centralisation and work attitude, undoubtedly influence leadership styles. Not only will such factors shape leadership approaches, but with regard to cultural differences these will often even stand in conflict to each other. Consequently domestically implemented leadership approaches might not be applicable in other cultural settings and render ineffective in maintaining firm sustained competitive advantage and superior international performance (Kimber, 1997; Jackson and Aycan, 2001; Pfeffer, 2002). The next section will investigate the effect of cultural values upon leadership styles in detail using the U and Japan as examples. British leadership style has often been described as more casual in nature fostering teamwork and seeking group consensus (Lewis, 2001). You read "The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles" in category "Leadership" As such, a more participative leadership style is predominant reflecting flatter hierarchical structures in UK organisations. So, hierarchical structures not primarily seem as means to establish authority structures (Laurent, 1983) but more as core administrative frameworks. This according to Hofstede (2001), is a reflection of the UK’s low association to Power Distance. Essentially, subordinates do not attribute much to position and title and leaders must â€Å"embody a collective will and take personal responsibility for it while continuing to communicate and co-operate with the team† (Mole, 1990, p. 105). Unsurprisingly, networking capability and people management skills are highly valued in the UK (Stewart et al. 1994) as leadership qualities. Nevertheless, this (collectivist) team and people orientation is mainly seem as a path towards achieving organisational targets and innovation assuring individuals in team settings aggregate knowledge that has strategic relevance to the organisation (Miller Morris, 1999). As such transformational leadership attitudes (Burns, 1978) can be seen where leaders are to create conditions under which subordinates devotedly contribute to the organisation yet this is done primarily through a strategic lens. (McCarthy, 2005). Nevertheless, the Anglo-Saxon system of shareholder satisfaction drives leaders towards task orientation often combined with a short-term outlook. As such quick, short-term organisational (financial) success is often more valued than long-term organisational success and relationship building, reflecting according to Hofstede, a culture of highly short term orientation and low uncertainty avoidance. Essentially, risks are seen as part of daily business practice and leadership approaches reflect that subordinates are given opportunity to implement potentially rewarding, but high risk, strategies. This shows that, despite team orientation and a one might say more relaxed, friendly and diplomatic leadership style, the British cannot deny their American leadership style influence, fostering structured individualism, speed and drive (Lewis, 2001). Falsely, m any authors seem to  ignore this connection, even so influences of hire and fire mentality and the creating of specialist roles underlining a core individualistic attitude are undeniable reflecting British national, and interlinked to that, legal and organisational culture. Such individualistic attitude constantly resurfaces in leadership styles often portrayed through individual target setting, remuneration practices and shorter employment contracts. Employees do not look for lifetime employment and a steady career in one company resultantly British leaders are more reluctant to invest heavily in the training and education of subordinates (Schneider Littrell, 2003). This continues to the often actively sought after and purposely created assertive and competitive environment amongst colleagues or departments reflecting a relatively high masculine attitude as Hofstede’s culture scale clearly outlines. While these attributes sketch general aspects of British leadership, styles will vary between organisations, industries and individuals. Service- or RD intensive industries for example, will follow a more Theory Y (McGregor, 1960) approach fostering employee involvement and empowerment. Leadership on traditional manufacturing industries on the other hand due to their reliance on productivity and output combined with an often repetitive working atmosphere, might take a more Theory X attitude. In contrast to the UK, Japanese leadership, like many Asian countries, is grounded in Confucian principles (Redding, 1990; Tan, 1986) and despite rising western influences, strong Confucian traits believing in moral, interpersonal relationships/loyalties, education and hard work still lurk beneath the surface (Lewis, 2001). Especially â€Å"taking the family as a model for society at large, Confucianism is basically authoritarian and stresses hierarchical and status differences† (Selmer, 2001, p. 8). As such, through its vertically orientated hierarchies and rigid organisation (Chen, 1995) one would expect Japan to score higher than the UK in Hofstede’s power distance index, and so indeed it does. This offers leaders with traditional and legitimate power bases however, surprisingly not resulting in autocratic leadership styles as one would expect, but far more the association of assertiveness-authority and reason tactics (Schmidt Yeh, 1992). As such, Japanese leadership style rewards subordinate respect and obedience with highly paternalistic attitudes, expressed by mendou: â€Å"I think about your, I will take care of you† (Dorfman et al. 1997). Consequently, the Japanese leadership culture, despite placing emphasising hierarchy and status differences requiring full subordinate obedience, expects helping and caring for followers and being involved in their personal lives (Whitehall Takezawa, 1968; Bass et al. 1979). As a result the most powerful force of the Japanese leader is not autocracy but charisma combined with intrinsic rather than extrinsic (materialistic) reward mechanisms often predominant in the UK: bonuses, on-target-earnings, etc. (Maslow, 1943, 1954). This seems surprising considering the high masculine score, which, from a western perspective would result in autocratic, top down, assertive, tough and focused on material success (Hofstede, 1998) leadership. It is here where Hofstede’s framework seems to only partly explain the Japanese culture and low individualism but high masculinity and power distance stand in conflict with each other. Additionally, in such an environment more focus towards ascription rather than achievement would be expected (Trompenaars Hampden-Turner, 1997, 2000). Nevertheless, the contrary appears in the Japanese context with leaders having to possess superior, often specific, (hard) knowledge supplemented by strong educational backgrounds (Nestler, 2008). Here another disparity to UK leadership emerges, where despite educational background being important for initial work placement, greater focus upon (soft) â€Å"people skills† and strategic directive is desired and ascription of leadership positions remains (Hampden-Turner Trompenaars, 1994). The collectivist principles shape Japanese leadership style dramatically, requiring group consensus and decision-making despite extremely high masculinity and higher power distance. Essentially a â€Å"bottom-up† (ringsho) process of decision-making is chosen (Wu, 2006) with the leader granting independent decision making to the group generally letting subordinates use their own approaches to achieve overall collectivist objectives (Dorfman et al. 1997). This is surprising, as in western societies strong hierarchical  structures often result in a â€Å"top-down† leadership approach but can be explained through high uncertainly avoidance collecting input and consensus from all parties involved before decisions are made. Even more so, the concepts of â€Å"wa† (maintaining social relationships) and â€Å"kao† (maintaining â€Å"face†) actually require the involvement of subordinates in the decision making process and the preservation of harmony rendering western leader contingent punishment behaviour inappropriate. It is here where Japanese leadership style diverts extensively from its UK (Anglo-Saxon) counterpart where public scrutinising is part of daily leadership practices reflecting a competitive and individualistic culture driven by short-term financial objectives with high-risk acceptance. Due to the collectivist environment and extensive future planning, Japanese managers on the other hand, do not view themselves as risk takers, despite this characteristic often being attributed to charismatic leaders (Bass, 1985). This is reflected in Japan’s extremely high uncertainty avoidance score and is further supported by strong long-term orientation valuing prevailing face and harmony. Unsurprisingly, life-long employment is desired, supplemented b continued job rotation aimed at developing employees. As a result leaders and subordinates enter into long and close relationships hardly ever interrupted contrasting the UK’s â€Å"burn out† environment fostering high staff turnover. Unlike in the UK, Japanese business leaders look for generalist employees capable of working in multiple levels of the organisation reflecting a society placing less value upon specialists than western cultures. Overall, Japanese leaders focus upon collective (not individual) responsibility (Hayashi, 1988) and group harmony maintenance is usually considered more important than profitability and overall productivity (Bass, 1990). Nevertheless, also Japanese leaders have to drive performance resulting in somewhat of a trade-off situation between performance and collectivist harmony maintenance. According to the performance-maintenance theory (Misumi, 1990), Japanese leaders have to chose between goal achievement and the continuation of the group, preferably combining high levels of both (Misumi, 1995). If this is achieved, such supportive or  participative leadership styles (Ouchi, 1981) are said to result in â€Å"higher levels of motivation, delegation of decision-making, commitment, and intrinsic job satisfaction† (Keys and Miller, 1982, p. 6). This appears to be in line with the currently preferred leadership style in the UK. However, one should not forget that unlike the Japanese working environment, the UK has been subject to great inward as well as outward FDI flows resulting in a blending of many different leadership approaches. As such arguably UK leaders would find it easier to adapt to Japanese principles than Japanese leaders. This is due to the western â€Å"farce† of collectivist team working for individualistic goals and the limited respect paid to status differences. While Hofstede’s framework helps to understand the leadership differences between the two countries if fails to explain some factors. So for examples does high Japanese power distance explain hierarchical structures and respect to superiors but the theoretical assumptions of complete centralisation of power, low emphasis on developing the workforce and autocratic top-down contact initiation (Hofstede, 1991) do not fully reflect the Japanese working environment. On this note one should not forget that Hofstede’s framework is not free of criticism and arguably is outdated, limited in scope of methodology and measurement (Dorfman and Howell, 1988; Roberts and Boyciligiller, 1984) and only reflects a blend of organisational (IBM) culture and national cultures (Hunt, 1983; Robinson, 1983). As such it is no surprise that other studies such as the GLOBE project have found differing or even contradictory results for similar cultural dimensions. How to cite The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles, Essays The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles Free Essays With globalisation and related intensification of trade and commerce effective leadership has become indispensable in the business world. Where traditionally the business leader took the role of commanding â€Å"the troops† towards effectiveness and efficiency this has changed dramatically over the last decades. The service industry rise, knowledge management trends, increased workforce diversity combined with international trading and global sourcing of talent, has considerably reshaped the role of the leader in the contemporary organisation. We will write a custom essay sample on The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles or any similar topic only for you Order Now Numerous firms are in global alliances depending upon flexibility/adaptability to local markets, requiring their managers to possess appropriate leadership styles to cope effectively with different value systems and cultures (Fahy, 2002; Coviello et al. , 1998). 2Arguably, the flattening of hierarchical structures has also contributed to this reshaping process as traditional sources of authority, upon which leaders have built on for years, have been diminished. Combined with the rise of new trading powers such as the â€Å"Asian Dragon†, business leaders, especially in international MNEs do not only face domestic multiculturalism and diversity but are also increasingly expatriated. Consequently completely new cultural pitfalls and challenges are faced requiring understanding of cultural values as well as quick cultural adaptation to transfer domestic leadership abilities into foreign markets. Combined with steadily rising competitive pressures, the contemporary business leader in a role not easily filled. Despite leadership being a universal concept (Bass, 1990), with most literature anchored in the (individualistically oriented) US, it has been questioned to what extend western leadership styles are cross-culturally transferable (Dorfman, 2003). Resultantly, debate has sparked over how far leadership is culturally contingent, if universal leadership qualities and tactics exist and what the explanatory variables are (Scandura Dorfman, 2004). This assignment aims at contributing towards this debate by exploring leadership disparity and possible congruence between the UK and Japan using academic measurement of national culture; Hofstede’s framework respectively. The next section will give an overview over the concept of leadership followed by an in-depth cultural comparison and concluding section. 4The term leadership incorporates some elements of controversy over its meaning and practices. Different cultural gist or terminology or in cross-cultural contexts makes a universal definition difficult (Yukl, 2002). This seems unsurprising as the understandings and expectations of authority roles differ between cultures. Nevertheless, despite cultural differences the majority of leadership definitions reflect some basic elements these manly being â€Å"group†, â€Å"influence† and â€Å"goal† (Bryman, 1992). Keeping this in mind, leadership can be seen as the â€Å"process of influencing others towards achieving some kind of desired outcome. † (De Jong Den Hartog, 2007, p. 44) or bluntly spoken â€Å"leadership is the ability to get [people] to do what they don’t like to do and like it† Whilst this is a very basic attempt of a definition it allows for easier application in a cross-cultural context and highlights an important point: In order to lead one needs followers (Drucker, 2007). It is here where the inseparable link to power emerges whereby the power of leaders is largely dependent upon the perception of others (Hollander Julian, 1969; Maurer Lord, 1991; Pfeffer, 1977) but nevertheless forms the basis of leadership authority. It appears that only effective use of this power, combined with â€Å"leading by example† (Pfeffer, 1981) will result in positive and proactive guidance fostering creativity, innovation, commitment and long term organisational development. 6However, this is questionable and it seems that far too often in academic literature the terms â€Å"manager† and â€Å"leader† are merged giving a blurred picture of what each role actually entails. Readers should be reminded that leaders, unlike managers, do not have to rely on forms of power to influence subordinates, often actually relinquishing formal authoritarian control. This is due to the idea that to lead is to have followers, and following is always a voluntary activity. Nevertheless, it can be argued that even leaders need some foundation of authority; may it only be their charisma (Weber, 1968). This has been manifested in the participative, charismatic or transformative styles of leadership (Den Hartog Koopman, 2001) as oppose to the transactional style more related to operational, task focused managers. Especially in western economies with predominant service industries, innovation and knowledge management, the former have been the focal point in recent years as autocratic leadership styles do no longer seem sufficient to extract the full potential of an increasingly knowledgeable, highly skilled and demanding workforce. Such, arguably â€Å"softer† approaches fostering employee involvement and participation have nevertheless been proven to result in increased organisational performance (Bass, 1996; 1997; House Shamir, 1993) and are arguably more â€Å"ideal† forms of organisational leadership (Bass Avolio, 1989). This might be applicable to western societies yet a cross-cultural generalisation might be prejudiced and the influence of personal values and cultural influences upon leadership styles should not be ignored (Byrne Bradley, 2007). Rather, culture, an essential component of which is personal values (Kroeber, 1952; Kluckhohm, 1949), is to be seen at a centre stage when analysing leadership differences (George et al. , 1998; Nakata Sivakumar, 1996; Steenkamp et al. , 1999; Cadogan et al. 2001), as t is â€Å"the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another† (Hofstede, 1980, p.260) and shape leadership preferences. Culture hereby should not be limited to national culture but has to be extended to incorporating organisational as well as political culture (Schein, 1985), the latter two arguably being extensively shaped by the former. Democratic or authoritarian political systems, national values regarding sex differences and ethical behaviour as well as organisational attitudes towards factors such as centralisation and work attitude, undoubtedly influence leadership styles. Not only will such factors shape leadership approaches, but with regard to cultural differences these will often even stand in conflict to each other. Consequently domestically implemented leadership approaches might not be applicable in other cultural settings and render ineffective in maintaining firm sustained competitive advantage and superior international performance (Kimber, 1997; Jackson and Aycan, 2001; Pfeffer, 2002). The next section will investigate the effect of cultural values upon leadership styles in detail using the U and Japan as examples. 9British leadership style has often been described as more casual in nature fostering teamwork and seeking group consensus (Lewis, 2001). As such, a more participative leadership style is predominant reflecting flatter hierarchical structures in UK organisations. So, hierarchical structures not primarily seem as means to establish authority structures (Laurent, 1983) but more as core administrative frameworks. This according to Hofstede (2001), is a reflection of the UK’s low association to Power Distance. Essentially, subordinates do not attribute much to position and title and leaders must â€Å"embody a collective will and take personal responsibility for it while continuing to communicate and co-operate with the team† (Mole, 1990, p. 105). Unsurprisingly, networking capability and people management skills are highly valued in the UK (Stewart et al. 1994) as leadership qualities. Nevertheless, this (collectivist) team and people orientation is mainly seem as a path towards achieving organisational targets and innovation assuring individuals in team settings aggregate knowledge that has strategic relevance to the organisation (Miller Morris, 1999). As such transformational leadership attitudes (Burns, 1978) can be seen where leaders are to create conditions under which subordinates devotedly contribute to the organisation yet this is done primarily through a strategic lens. (McCarthy, 2005). Nevertheless, the Anglo-Saxon system of shareholder satisfaction drives leaders towards task orientation often combined with a short-term outlook. As such quick, short-term organisational (financial) success is often more valued than long-term organisational success and relationship building, reflecting according to Hofstede, a culture of highly short term orientation and low uncertainty avoidance. Essentially, risks are seen as part of daily business practice and leadership approaches reflect that subordinates are given opportunity to implement potentially rewarding, but high risk, strategies. This shows that, despite team orientation and a one might say more relaxed, friendly and diplomatic leadership style, the British cannot deny their American leadership style influence, fostering structured individualism, speed and drive (Lewis, 2001). Falsely, m any authors seem to ignore this connection, even so influences of hire and fire mentality and the creating of specialist roles underlining a core individualistic attitude are undeniable reflecting British national, and interlinked to that, legal and organisational culture. Such individualistic attitude constantly resurfaces in leadership styles often portrayed through individual target setting, remuneration practices and shorter employment contracts. Employees do not look for lifetime employment and a steady career in one company resultantly British leaders are more reluctant to invest heavily in the training and education of subordinates (Schneider Littrell, 2003). This continues to the often actively sought after and purposely created assertive and competitive environment amongst colleagues or departments reflecting a relatively high masculine attitude as Hofstede’s culture scale clearly outlines. While these attributes sketch general aspects of British leadership, styles will vary between organisations, industries and individuals. Service- or RD intensive industries for example, will follow a more Theory Y (McGregor, 1960) approach fostering employee involvement and empowerment. Leadership on traditional manufacturing industries on the other hand due to their reliance on productivity and output combined with an often repetitive working atmosphere, might take a more Theory X attitude. In contrast to the UK, Japanese leadership, like many Asian countries, is grounded in Confucian principles (Redding, 1990; Tan, 1986) and despite rising western influences, strong Confucian traits believing in moral, interpersonal relationships/loyalties, education and hard work still lurk beneath the surface (Lewis, 2001). Especially â€Å"taking the family as a model for society at large, Confucianism is basically authoritarian and stresses hierarchical and status differences† (Selmer, 2001, p.8). As such, through its vertically orientated hierarchies and rigid organisation (Chen, 1995) one would expect Japan to score higher than the UK in Hofstede’s power distance index, and so indeed it does. This offers leaders with traditional and legitimate power bases however, surprisingly not resulting in autocratic leadership styles as one would expect, but far more the association of assertiveness-authority and reason tactics (Schmidt Yeh, 1992). As such, Japanese leadership style rewards subordinate respect and obedience with highly paternalistic attitudes, expressed by mendou: â€Å"I think about your, I will take care of you† (Dorfman et al. 1997). Consequently, the Japanese leadership culture, despite placing emphasising hierarchy and status differences requiring full subordinate obedience, expects helping and caring for followers and being involved in their personal lives (Whitehall Takezawa, 1968; Bass et al.1979). As a result the most powerful force of the Japanese leader is not autocracy but charisma combined with intrinsic rather than extrinsic (materialistic) reward mechanisms often predominant in the UK: bonuses, on-target-earnings, etc. (Maslow, 1943, 1954). This seems surprising considering the high masculine score, which, from a western perspective would result in autocratic, top down, assertive, tough and focused on material success (Hofstede, 1998) leadership. It is here where Hofstede’s framework seems to only partly explain the Japanese culture and low individualism but high masculinity and power distance stand in conflict with each other. 14Additionally, in such an environment more focus towards ascription rather than achievement would be expected (Trompenaars Hampden-Turner, 1997, 2000). Nevertheless, the contrary appears in the Japanese context with leaders having to possess superior, often specific, (hard) knowledge supplemented by strong educational backgrounds (Nestler, 2008). Here another disparity to UK leadership emerges, where despite educational background being important for initial work placement, greater focus upon (soft) â€Å"people skills† and strategic directive is desired and ascription of leadership positions remains (Hampden-Turner Trompenaars, 1994). 15The collectivist principles shape Japanese leadership style dramatically, requiring group consensus and decision-making despite extremely high masculinity and higher power distance. Essentially a â€Å"bottom-up† (ringsho) process of decision-making is chosen (Wu, 2006) with the leader granting independent decision making to the group generally letting subordinates use their own approaches to achieve overall collectivist objectives (Dorfman et al. 1997). This is surprising, as in western societies strong hierarchical structures often result in a â€Å"top-down† leadership approach but can be explained through high uncertainly avoidance collecting input and consensus from all parties involved before decisions are made. Even more so, the concepts of â€Å"wa† (maintaining social relationships) and â€Å"kao† (maintaining â€Å"face†) actually require the involvement of subordinates in the decision making process and the preservation of harmony rendering western leader contingent punishment behaviour inappropriate. It is here where Japanese leadership style diverts extensively from its UK (Anglo-Saxon) counterpart where public scrutinising is part of daily leadership practices reflecting a competitive and individualistic culture driven by short-term financial objectives with high-risk acceptance. Due to the collectivist environment and extensive future planning, Japanese managers on the other hand, do not view themselves as risk takers, despite this characteristic often being attributed to charismatic leaders (Bass, 1985). This is reflected in Japan’s extremely high uncertainty avoidance score and is further supported by strong long-term orientation valuing prevailing face and harmony. Unsurprisingly, life-long employment is desired, supplemented b continued job rotation aimed at developing employees. As a result leaders and subordinates enter into long and close relationships hardly ever interrupted contrasting the UK’s â€Å"burn out† environment fostering high staff turnover. Unlike in the UK, Japanese business leaders look for generalist employees capable of working in multiple levels of the organisation reflecting a society placing less value upon specialists than western cultures. 17Overall, Japanese leaders focus upon collective (not individual) responsibility (Hayashi, 1988) and group harmony maintenance is usually considered more important than profitability and overall productivity (Bass, 1990). Nevertheless, also Japanese leaders have to drive performance resulting in somewhat of a trade-off situation between performance and collectivist harmony maintenance. According to the performance-maintenance theory (Misumi, 1990), Japanese leaders have to chose between goal achievement and the continuation of the group, preferably combining high levels of both (Misumi, 1995). If this is achieved, such supportive or participative leadership styles (Ouchi, 1981) are said to result in â€Å"higher levels of motivation, delegation of decision-making, commitment, and intrinsic job satisfaction† (Keys and Miller, 1982, p.6). This appears to be in line with the currently preferred leadership style in the UK. However, one should not forget that unlike the Japanese working environment, the UK has been subject to great inward as well as outward FDI flows resulting in a blending of many different leadership approaches. As such arguably UK leaders would find it easier to adapt to Japanese principles than Japanese leaders. This is due to the western â€Å"farce† of collectivist team working for individualistic goals and the limited respect paid to status differences. While Hofstede’s framework helps to understand the leadership differences between the two countries if fails to explain some factors. So for examples does high Japanese power distance explain hierarchical structures and respect to superiors but the theoretical assumptions of complete centralisation of power, low emphasis on developing the workforce and autocratic top-down contact initiation (Hofstede, 1991) do not fully reflect the Japanese working environment. On this note one should not forget that Hofstede’s framework is not free of criticism and arguably is outdated, limited in scope of methodology and measurement (Dorfman and Howell, 1988; Roberts and Boyciligiller, 1984) and only reflects a blend of organisational (IBM) culture and national cultures (Hunt, 1983; Robinson, 1983). As such it is no surprise that other studies such as the GLOBE project have found differing or even contradictory results for similar cultural dimensions. How to cite The Cultural Anchoring Of Leadership Styles, Essays

Pee Wee Scouts Thanksgiving Essays - Thanksgiving, Pee Wee

Pee Wee Scouts Thanksgiving Pee Wee Scouts are a group of kids that do good things for other people. On thanksgiving they made baskets for the poor people. So the poor people had somthing to eat on thanksgiving. Now isn't that nice. When they were filling the baskets they found a unlabled can. Their teacher Mrs. Petters told them to put one unlabled can in each basket. She also said They will suprsed what is in the can. They visit a turkey farm and Sonny went to cry because he wanted a pet turkey. So he cryed and cryed until he gets the turkey he wants. It's name is Tiger. Mrs. Petters tell them they are going to do a play. About pilgrims and Indains. With the mayor wachting them. They do the play and Rachel tells everyone she won't forget her part.Molly told Rachel she would not remeber her line.When it was time for Rachel to say her part she didn't remeber her line. So Molly helped Rachel say her line. Molly said her line great. Sonny has to bring Tiger back to the farm were Tigers firends live. He was lonley anyway. said Sonny. Book Reports

French And Indian War DBQ Essay Example

French And Indian War DBQ Essay Example French And Indian War DBQ Paper French And Indian War DBQ Paper For decennaries. the Gallic traded with the Indian folk. This move created a civilised confederation with the Indians so that they could hold a new part to claim as New France. Cherished beaver pelt was the chief merchandising point. Soon plenty. tensenesss rose whenever Pennsylvanians and Virginians decided that they besides wanted to put claims on this new found frontier land. This led to massive struggle between the settlements and ended up being one of the most barbarous slaughters in history. This is besides known as the Seven Years’ War. The Gallic and Indian war changed the relationship between the British and American settlements. By seeing this land as a manner to heighten each’s wealth and power they would travel to no extent to make their end. no affair what the effects were. The Gallic and Indian war changed the position of British and American settlements in approximately every manner of economically. ideologically. and politically. Politically it effected the settlements by republicanism. ideologically because of independency. and economically through the revenue enhancement. In papers one. the colonial power in pre-war 1754 started out as equally disputed throughout North America. Some of the colonial power over certain parts of North America were shared between Great Britain and the Gallic before the war. Then. the power in post-war 1763 looked as if the British had about entire control of North America. The lone parts it didn’t ain was Louisiana and Texas. which was owned by the Spanish. The great addition of control in power and enlargement of districts for Britain led to more duty. When the British began taking over politically. they started altering authorities by desiring a republican system over the English monarchy. Document four states how the colonial militiamen were denied entree to the apparels and or supplies they needed. even though they were Englishmen born. they were non the regular British. These colonial work forces were being held under the British powers. It was clip for these work forces to go forth to travel place. but they w ere non yet allowed to go forth. : They swore to make no more responsibility for them while they were at that place since it was at that place clip to go forth. which so caused struggle because the British wanted to still hold power over them. Document three begins to speak about George Washington’s trueness to his male monarch and state and he has regard for his new commanding officer General Braddock with such great experience and abilities. After the General got changeable during a conflict George Washington is declared to be the leader. He subsequently on marks a pact written in French. even though he can non read or talk Gallic. and by subscribing that pact he is tricked into squealing that he killed a dominating officer. The Treaty of Paris ended the Gallic and Indian war in 1763. harmonizing to papers five. The Treaty of Paris besides made Britain more powerful because Britain became the exclusive taking political power. The settlers praise that the menace of enemies were removed and they can get down to bask the freedom. Even though the Treaty of Paris ended the war there was still war disbursals that were tremendously expensive that made the triumph less sweet because those disbursals were hanging over them. 1763 the national debt doubled in Britain whenever Pitt started in office. Harmonizing to papers five. the British Order in Council believed that the gross coming in from America was less than adequate and deficient. The council was stating that they needed to make a larger gross to maintain the military protection over the settlements. Besides. that if new district came along and the population expanded they would necessitate more inadvertence. which costs even more money. To acquire the gross needed to pay debts the British Begin to implement mercantilist policies. The trade was get downing to be regulated as required to convey in more money. To demo more authorization the British took greater control over the colonial Government’s matter and gave them small to no control over it. Economically. the British were in control of all gross due to the major demand of gross to assist pay the debts and they were determined to make whatever it took to acquire the money. In 1765 The Stamp Act was created to raise greater sums of gross. The Stamp Act was a revenue enhancement on all paper that was required for official paperss like newspapers. tribunal paperss. licences. ships’ lading lists. etc. It required an affiliated cast for cogent evidence that the revenue enhancement for it had been paid. In 1766 a worldwide opposition towards The Stamp Act evolved to seek and revoke the unjust revenue enhancement. Document eight begins speaking about how Benjamin Franklin tells John Hughs that he is working in hopes to revoke The Stamp Act. Franklin still wants to obey the Torahs and avoid penalty. but he knows ill will will b e shown toward the political system from the settlers. Document seven shows a cutout from a Pennsylvanian newspaper during this important clip in 1765. The newspaper shows rebellion by utilizing skull and cross bone symbols to depict the times as dreadful. The newspaper leaves a topographic point for the cast but fills it with a skull and words that said An emblem of the effects of the STAMP. o’ the fatal cast. The newspaper puts the article in the form of a gravestone to stand for the decease of colonial government’s rights. The newspaper encourages the people to take a base and Rebel against The Stamp Act to convey it to an terminal. In decision. The Gallic and Indian war was a conflict between the English and French for power over settlements in North America. This conflict is good known as the Seven Years War. This consequences with jobs happening economically. politically. and ideologically. No existent victor was made from this conflict because even though the British won they were in tremendous sums of debt that the y couldn’t pay off. This debt about crashed the whole English authorities. The British started off by deriving power over most of North America after the war. but didn’t realize the complications that came along with it. Following. they began to do America wage gross to assist the British wage off their debt and pay for military protection services over the settlements. Finally. the Stamp Act was introduced to the settlements to revenue enhancement them on official documents and this was besides to assist acquire more gross. This caused a widespread up rise of people who did non hold with the unjust revenue enhancement on paper. Piques were flared and the peoples’ bounds had been pushed far plenty because of this debt. Debt was the chief cause of furies within settlements. which so lead to the bursting point. known as the Revolutionary War.

Java Event Listeners Process User Activity in a GUI

Java Event Listeners Process User Activity in a GUI An event listener in Java is designed to process some kind of event  - it listens for an event, such as a users mouse click or a key press, and then it responds accordingly. An event listener must be connected to an event object that defines the event. For example, graphical components like a JButton ​or JTextField are known as  event sources. This means that they can generate events (called event objects),  such as providing a JButton for a user to click, or a JTextField in which a user can enter text. The event listeners job is to catch those events and do something with them. How Event Listeners Work Each event listener interface includes at least one method used by the equivalent event source. For this discussion, lets consider a mouse event, i.e. anytime a user clicks something with a mouse, represented by the Java class MouseEvent. To handle this type of event, you would first create a MouseListener class that implements the Java MouseListener interface. This interface has five methods; implement the one that relates to the type of mouse action you anticipate your user taking. These are: void mouseClicked(MouseEvent e)Invoked when the mouse button has been clicked (pressed and released) on a component.void mouseEntered(MouseEvent e)Invoked when the mouse enters a component.void mouseExited(MouseEvent e)Invoked when the mouse exits a component.void mousePressed(MouseEvent e)Invoked when a mouse button has been pressed on a component.void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e)Invoked when a mouse button has been released on a component As you can see, each method has a single event object parameter: the particular mouse event it is designed to handle. In your MouseListener class, you register to listen to any of these events so that you are informed when they occur. When the event fires (for example, the user clicks the mouse, as per the mouseClicked() method above), a relevant MouseEvent object representing that event is created and passed to the  MouseListener object registered to receive it.   Types of Event Listeners Event listeners are represented by different interfaces, each of which is designed to process an equivalent event. Note that event listeners are flexible in that a single listener can be registered to listen to multiple types of events. This means that, for a similar set of components that perform the same type of action, one event listener can handle all the events. Here are some of the most common types: ActionListener: Listens for an ActionEvent, i.e. when a graphical element is clicked such as a button or item in a list.ContainerListener: Listens for a ContainerEvent, which might occur if the user adds or removes an object from the interface.KeyListener: Listens for a KeyEvent in which the user presses, types or releases a key.WindowListener: Listens for a WindowEvent, for example, when a window is closed, activated or deactivated.MouseListener: Listens for a   MouseEvent, such as when a mouse is clicked or pressed.

Indians and Indian Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Indians and Indian Policy - Essay Example Vince Deloria in his narrative highlights the issues of leadership and preservation of the Indian culture. Vince Deloria was a well known professor, leader and advocate for the Indian rights and cultural recognition. Deloria was a Standing Rock Sioux and he experienced firsthand the effect of government policies on the lives of native Indians. He wrote his narrative during his period as a professor and advocate of the native Indian rights. In the period between 1970 and 80, the Indian population experienced tremendous population growth that was not understood. Immediately after the Second World War, the Indian people were given opportunities to be economically empowered through the Indian Re-organization Act. However, this did not endear other races and people to identify with the Indian race since other people enjoyed better services and economic benefits. During this period Indians felt no sense of personal worth in propagating their culture or sense of identity (Calloway 567). Del oria however explains that this trend started to change in the 1980’s when people wanted to be recognized as Indians whether it was to gain educational or economical benefits. But this was the reason that endeared other races to becoming whites but it was the religious practice of the native Indians that made many white people to associate with the Indian culture. ... However, Deloria delivers the message that native Indians can only solve their problems through use of the culture since they understand their problems better than other people. Native Indians have suffered the problem of genuine leadership which contributed to Indian discrimination. As a result, it is a high time for Indians to recall their culture and chase away imposters who do not understand Indian culture or problems as advocated by Deloria (Calloway, p.571). On the other hand, Wilma Mankiller was the first woman Cherokee chief narrates her experiences as the chief of a native Indian tribe. In her story she highlights the challenges that the Cherokee people faced in living their lives normally in a country they were considered as minority ethnic group. Her early life prepared her for the role she was to engage in as a political leader among the Cherokee people. The lacklustre governmental policies gave her motivation to campaign and fight for the recognition of native Indian rig hts. Wilma wrote her stories so that she could share with future native Indians her story especially to the Indian women. Wilma wrote her narrative during a period when native Indians were enjoying recognition from other people especially the majority white population in the US (Calloway 573). It was during this period that Indian tribes were given the opportunity to choose their own leaders who could manage their own affairs. The change in government policy and the new policy changes that recognized Indians gave an opportunity for Indian tribes to govern their own affairs. Moreover, Indians were now educated and were better placed to manage their own affairs as elucidated by Wilma. The narrative told by Wilma is in fact true based on the real events that occurred

Why is it important for managers today to be entrepreneurial Essay

Why is it important for managers today to be entrepreneurial - Essay Example The world is witnessing competition in every corner and at every scale. The globe revolves around money. Money is the game changer and for that matter the business and economic arena is expanding every day swiftly. Now money is not only dealt with at organizational level, instead it has seeped into the lives of individuals. That means that in this twenty-first century, an individual can be an organization in itself given he/she is creative and capable enough. Such individuals are called entrepreneurs who are replacing managers. Whether this new trend could be successful depends on certain skills required that form the prerequisite of booming businesses. How similar are entrepreneurial skills similar to managerial skills would determine whether these two are contradictory or complementary in an organization. To start off with, the terms entrepreneur and manager need to be defined separately. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, an entrepreneur is that individual â€Å"who org anizes, manages and assumes the risks of a business or enterprise† or â€Å"one who organizes a new business venture in the hopes of making a profit. On the other hand a manager is â€Å"a person who conducts business or household affairs and does the job of management.†... This is because it is believed that only entrepreneurs with their skills of â€Å"creativity, intuition, goal-oriented, responsibility, self-confidence, independence, optimism, discipline and fantasy† can come up with possible solutions to the problem of poverty, unemployment and environmental hazards.(Papulova & Makros 2007). For managers, the required and basic skills are technical, interpersonal, conceptual and communication. These are the pre-requisites for having a healthy relationship with the leader and subordinates of the organization. If the manager fails to do so, the organization will also be deemed to fail. It would mean that the core of the organization is corrupt. Managers need to be prepared for the best and worst case scenarios. They have to play the role of entrepreneurs when at the peak of success or on the verge of tipping over. There are a few traits that should be present in both managers and entrepreneurs simultaneously. The interpersonal roles of figureh ead, leader, liaison, information roles of monitor, disseminator, spokesperson and the decision making role of entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator need to show face at the right time. (Papulove & Mokros 2007). There are five stages of growth of an organization where the founder/leader needs managerial and entrepreneurial skills. The first phase that is pre start-up phase requires relevant knowledge of setting up a business, demand of the market and one’s own abilities. To be successful in this competitive world, one needs to have a new and unique idea at the initial phase. That certainly requires entrepreneur skills because rigidity is just not acceptable at this stage. The second phase is the survival stage. This is a